Beneficiaries' perceptions on the effectiveness of self-help and state-driven housing programmes in the city of Tshwane, South Africa

Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine the perceptions of beneficiaries on the effectiveness of self-help and state-driven housing programmes in the City of Tshwane, South Africa. A further objective was to suggest an appropriate housing delivery model for low-income urban communities. The study was grounded in J.F.C. Turner's self-help theoretical framework, which foregrounds dweller control, freedom to build, and progressive housing development as the key determinants of housing satisfaction. These principles were applied as the primary evaluative lens through which sustainable community formation and beneficiary perceptions were assessed. A mixed methods research design was adopted for this study. The quantitative component comprised a structured household survey administered to 180 housing beneficiaries across two purposively selected case study communities in Soshanguve, City of Tshwane. The first community was Soshanguve Block JJ, representing the selfhelp housing model, and the second was Soshanguve Extension 13, representing the state-driven Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) model. A total of 90 questionnaires were administered per settlement, ensuring an equal and comparable sample across both sites. The qualitative component comprised of semi-structured indepth interviews and focus group discussions involving 26 participants, including community members, key informants, and housing officials. The primary data was triangulated with critical literature on housing delivery models in developing countries, as well as an analysis of the South African housing policy framework. The policy documents examined included the 1994 White Paper on Housing, the Housing Act 107 of 1997, and the Breaking New Ground policy of 2004. The key findings reveal that the state-driven RDP model generated widespread beneficiary dissatisfaction across both study communities. This dissatisfaction was primarily attributable to poor construction quality, the exclusion of beneficiaries from decision-making processes,and corruption in housing allocation and contractor procurement. Compounding these concerns were the peripheral spatial location of RDP developments far from employment opportunities and the inadequate monitoring of government-appointed contractors. By contrast, self-help housing in Block JJ produced measurably higher levels of beneficiary satisfaction, characterised by stronger attachment to dwellings and community, as well as greater investment in housing improvement and extension The outcomes of this model were more closely aligned with residents' social and economic circumstances than those generated by the state-driven RDP approach. Overwhelmingly, beneficiaries from both communities, including RDP beneficiaries who had experienced the state-driven model, expressed a preference for the stateassisted self-help model over continued contractor-driven delivery. The study recommends that the government transition from its role as primary housing constructor to that of a facilitator and enabler. In this capacity, the state would provide beneficiaries with serviced land, secure tenure, basic infrastructure, and building materials, while empowering communities to manage their own construction processes. This state-assisted self-help model aligns with both the People's Housing Process established in the National Housing Code and the policy direction of the White Paper on Human Settlements of 2024. The study further recommends the prioritisation of well-located land and the strengthening of beneficiary participation mechanisms across all stages of the housing delivery process. The practical implications of these recommendations are significant for housing policy, urban planning, and municipal governance in South Africa. A shift towards the state-assisted self-help model would reduce the financial burden on the state by engaging beneficiaries as active contributors to their own housing construction, thereby stretching the housing budget further without compromising quality or beneficiary satisfaction. The proposed model would hopefully promote stronger community ownership, improved housing maintenance, and more sustainable neighbourhoods. It would also unlock the practical building skills, local knowledge, and social networks embedded in low-income communities, which the contractor-driven model systematically excludes. This study contributes to South African housing policy debates by providing empirical, beneficiary-centred evidence demonstrating that a properly supported self-help model is both a viable and preferable alternative to the current state-driven approach.

Xikongomelo xa nkambisiso lowu a ku ri ku kambela mavonelo ya lava va vuyeriweke eka matirhelo ya kahla hi ku humelela ka minongonoko ya tindlu ta vanhu lava tipfunaka ni ta mfumo eDorobeni ra Tshwane, eAfrika Dzonga. Xikongomelo xin'wana a ku ri ku ringanyeta ndlela leyi faneleke ya ku nyika vanhu va le madorobeni tiyindlu leti nga nyawuriwi. Ndzavisiso lowu a wu endliwa eJ.F.C. Xivumbeko xa Turner xa ku tipfuna hi wexe, lexi rhangisaka vulawuri bya vaaki, ntshunxeko wo aka ni ku hluvukisiwa ka tindlu lowu yaka emahlweni tanihi swilo swa nkoka leswi endlaka leswaku vanhu va eneriseka hi tindlu leti va tshamaka eka tona. Milawu leyi yi tirhisiwe tanihi xitirhi xo sungula xa ndlela yo kambela ya nkoka yaku vumbeka ka muganga lowu nga ta tshama nkarhi wo leha ni ndlela leyi vahlapfa va langutaka swilo ha yona. Ku tirhisiwe endlelo ra ku hlanganisa tindlela to endla ndzavisiso leswaku ku endliwa nkambisiso lowu. Xiyenge xa ntsengo a xi katsa nkambisiso wa mindyangu lowu endliweke eka 180(dzana na makume-nhungu) wa vanhu lava nga ta kuma tiyindlu eka tindhawu timbirhi leti hlawuriweke hi xikongomelo xo endla nkambisiso wa mhaka leyi eSoshanguve, eDorobeni ra Tshwane. Nhlengeletano yo sungula a ku ri Soshanguve Block JJ, leyi yimelaka endlelo ro aka tindlu hi ku pfunana, kasi ya vumbirhi a ku ri Soshanguve Extension 13,(Khumenharhu) leyi yimelaka endlelo ra Nongonoko wo Aka hi Vuntshwa ni Nhluvukiso (RDP) leri fambisiwaka hi mfumo. Tinhlamuselo ta 90 (makume-nkaye) ta swivutiso ti nyikeriwile eka ndhawu yin'wana ni yin'wana, ku tiyisisa leswaku ku ni nkambisiso lowu fanaka ni lowu ringanaka etindhawini letimbirhi. Xiyenge xa nkoka a xi katsa mimbulavurisano leyi enteke leyi hleriweke kahle ni mintlawa ya mbulavurisano leyi katsaka vanhu va 26,(makumembirhi -ntsevu )ku katsa ni swirho swa vaaki, vanhu lava nga ni vutivi ni vatirhela-mfumo lava tirhanaka ni timhaka ta tindlu. Vuxokoxoko bya masungulo byi hlanganisiwile na matsalwa ya nkoka eka tindlela to nyika tiyindlu eka matiko lama hluvukaka, xikan'we na nkambisiso wa rimba ra pholisi ya tiyindlu ya Afrika-Dzonga. Tsalwa ra milawu leyi kambisisiweke a ri katsa Buku yo Basa ya 1994 ya Tindlu, Nawu wa 107(dzana-nkombo) wa 1997 wa Tindlu ni nawu wa 2004 lowu nge “Breaking New Ground”. Leswi kumiweke eka nkambisiso lowu swi kombise leswaku endlelo ra RDP leri lawuriwaka hi mfumo ri vange ku nga eneriseki lokukulu ka vapfuniwa/vavuyeriwa eka mintlawa hayimbirhi ya dyondzo. Ku nga eneriseki loku a ku vangiwa ngopfu hi ku aka ka xiyimo xa le hansi, ku nga katsiwi ka vapfuniwa/vavuyeriwa eka maendlelo yo endla swiboho na vukungundzwana eku nyikeni ka tindlu na ku xaviwa ka tikontraka. Ku engetela eka swivilelo leswi a ku ri na ndhawu ya le kule ya nhluvukiso wa RDP ekule na mintirho na ku languteriwa loku nga ringanelangiki ka tikhontraka leti thoriweke hi mfumo. Ku hambana ni sweswo, tiyindlu ta ku tihlayisa eBlock JJ ti humese mimpimo ya le henhla swinene ya ku eneriseka ka vapfuniwa/vavuyeriwa, leyi kombisiweke hi ku namarhela swinene eka tindlu ni le ka vaaki, xikan'we ni vuvekisi lebyikulu byo antswisa ni ku ndlandlamuxa tindlu. Vuyelo bya endlelo leri a byi fambisana swinene ni swiyimo swa vaaki swa ikhonomi ni swa ntshamisano ku tlula vuyelo bya endlelo ra RDP leri lawuriwaka hi mfumo. Hi xitalo, vavuyeriwa ku suka eka miganga hayimbirhi, ku katsa na vavuyeriwa va RDP lava nga tokota maendlelo ya mfumo, va kombise ku tsakela maendlelo ya mfumo yo pfuneta ku ti pfuna ku tlula ku yisa emahlweni ku nyiketiwa ka tikontraka. Ndzavisiso lowu wu bumabumela leswaku mfumo wu tshika ku va muaki lonkulu wa tiyindlu kutani yi va muendli wa leswaku ku va ni ku rhula ni ku endla leswaku ku va ni ku rhula. Hi ndlela leyi, mfumo wu ta nyika vavuyeriwa misava leyi nga ni vukorhokeri, ndhawu leyi sirhelelekeke, switirhisiwa swa masungulo ni swilo swo aka, loko wu ri karhi wu nyika vaaki matimba yo lawula mintirho ya vona yo aka. Xikombiso lexi xa ku pfuneta hi swa mfumo xi fambisana ni endlelo ra ku akiwa ka tindlu ta vanhu leri simekiweke eka Nawu wa Rixaka wa ku Aka ni nkongomiso wa nawu wa Buku yo Basa ya 2024 ya ku Tshamiseka ka Vanhu. Ndzavisiso lowu wu tlhela wu bumabumela ku rhangisa misava leyi nga eka ndhawu leyinene ni ku tiyisa tindlela ta ku hoxa xandla ka vapfuniwa eka swiyimo hinkwaswo swa ku akiwa ka tindlu. Mimbuyelo ya xiviri ya swibumabumelo leswi i ya nkoka eka pholisi ya tindlu, ku pulana ka madoroba na vufambisi bya masipala eAfrika Dzonga. Ku cinca ku ya eka endlelo ra ku pfuneta hi swa timali leri seketeriwaka hi mfumo swi ta hunguta ndzhwalo wa timali eka mfumo hi ku endla leswaku vapfuniwa va nghenelela eka ku aka tindlu ta vona, xisweswo va engetela mali ya tindlu handle ko kavanyeta nkoka wa tona kumbe ku eneriseka ka vapfuniwa. Hi tshemba leswaku endlelo leri kunguhatiweke ri ta pfuna vaaki leswaku va va vini va tindlu, ku hlayisa tindlu ni ku aka tindhawu leti nga ta tshama nkarhi wo leha. Swi ta tlhela swi endla leswaku vanhu va va ni vuswikoti byo aka, vutivi bya ndhawu ni ku endla xinghana ni vanhu lava tshamaka etindhawini leti nga ni vanhu lava nga holiki mali yo nyawula, ku nga swilo leswi nga katsiwiki eka endlelo ra ku aka leri lawuriwaka hi tikontraka.a Ndzavisiso lowu wu hoxa xandla eka minjhekanjhekisano ya tipholisi ta tindlu ta Afrika-Dzonga hi ku nyika vumbhoni bya xiviri, lebyi kongomisiweke eka vavuyeriwa lebyi kombisaka leswaku endlelo ra ku pfunana hi wexe leri seketeriwaka kahle i ndlela yin'wana yo antswa ku tlula endlelo ra sweswi leri kongomisiwaka hi mfumo.

Ndivho ya iyi ngudo ndi u sedzulusa mihumbulo ya vhavhuyelwa zwi tshi kwama u kona u ḓibveledzisa na mbekanyamushumo dza vhudzulo dzi tshimbidzwaho nga muvhuso ngei Ḓoroboni Khulwane ya Tshwane, Afrika Tshipembe. Tshiṅwe tshipikwa ho vha u dzinginya tshiedziso tsha nḓisedzo ya vhudzulo ho teaho kha zwitshavha zwa ḓoroboni zwi holaho masheleni maṱuku. Ngudo yo ḓitika nga mutheo wa thyiori ya u ḓibveledzisa ya J.F.C. Turner, ine ya ombedzela ndangulo ya vhadzuli, mbofholowo ya u fhaṱa na mveledziso ya vhudzulo i bvelelaho sa zwiṱuṱuwedzi zwihulwane zwine zwa ita uri muthu a fushee nga vhudzulo. Iyi milayo yo shumiswa sa kuvhonele kwa u ṱola kwa u thoma ye ngayo ha senguluswa u vhumbwa ha tshitshavha tshi bvelaho phanḓa na nḓila ine vhavhuyelwa vho ṱolwa ngayo. Nyolo ya ṱhoḓisiso ya ngona dzo vanganaho yo shumiswa kha iyi ngudo. Tshipiḓa tsha tshivhalo tshi katela ṱhoḓisiso yo dzudzanywaho ya miṱa yo vhuyelwaho nga vhudzulo ya 180 kha zwitshavha zwivhili zwo khethwaho hu na ndivho ngei Soshanguve, Ḓoroboni Khulwane ya Tshwane. Tshitshavha tsha u thoma tsho vha Soshanguve Block JJ, tshi imelaho tshiedziso tsha vhudzulo ha u ḓibveledzisa, tsha vhuvhili ho vha Soshanguve Extension 13, tshi imelaho tshiedziso tsha Mbekanyamushumo ya u Fhaṱulula na Mveledziso (RDP) tshi rangwaho phanḓa nga muvhuso. Tshivhaloguṱe tsha mbudzisotiwa dza 90 tsho ṋetshedzwa nga vhudzulo, u itela u khwaṱhisedza uri sambula i a lingana na u vhambedzwa kha fhethu hoṱhe. Tshipiḓa tsha vhunzani tshi katela inthaviu dza mbudziso dzo tiwaho na therisano dzo sedzaho kha zwigwada dzi katelaho vhashelamulenzhe vha 26, hu tshi khou katelwa miraḓo ya tshitshavha, vhaṋetshedzi vha mafhungo vha ndeme na vhaofisiri vha nnḓu. Data ya ndeme yo khethekanywa nga maṅwalwa a ndeme a kwamaho zwiedziso zwa nḓisedzo ya nnḓu kha mashango ane a khou bvelela, khathihi na tsenguluso ya mutheo wa mbekanyamaitele ya vhudzulo ya Afrika Tshipembe. Maṅwalwo a mbekanyamaitele o ṱolwaho a katela Nḓivhadzamulayotibe ya 1994 i kwamaho nnḓu, Mulayo wa Vhudzulo wa 1977, mbekanyamaitele ya u Tumbula Zwithu Zwiswa ya 2004. Mawanwa mahulwane o bvisela khagala uri tshiedziso tsha tsha Mbekanyamushumo ya u Fhaṱulula na Mveledziso tsho bveledza u sa fushea ha vhavhuyelwa ho phaḓalalaho kha zwitshavha zwa ngudo vhuvhili hazwo. U sa fushea uhu ho vhangwa nga vhuimo hu si havhuḓi ha u fhaṱa, u siwa nga nnḓa ha vhavhuyelwa kha maitele a u dzhia tsheo na tshanḓanguvhoni kha u avhelwa ha nnḓu na zwirengwaho nga rakonṱiraka. Zwine zwa engedza idzi mbilaelo ho vha hu fhethu hu re nga nnḓa ha mveledziso dza RDP na u vha kule na zwikhala zwa mishumo na u ṱolwa hu songo linganaho ha vhorakonṱiraka vho tholwaho nga muvhuso. Nga u vhambedza, nnḓu ya u ḓibveledzisa ngei Block JJ yo bveledza zwikalo zwa nṱhesa zwi vhonalaho zwa u fushea ha muvhuyelwa, zwo ṱaluswaho nga vhuṱumani ho khwaṱhaho kha vhudzulo na tshitshavha, khathihi na vhubindudzi vhuhulwane kha u khwinisa na u engedza dzinnḓu. mvelelo dza itshi tshiedziso dzo vha dzi tshimbilelana tshoṱhe na nyimele dza matshilisanao na ikonomi dza vhadzulapo u fhira dze dza bveledzwa nga ngona ya RDP i tshimbidzwaho nga muvhuso. Nga nḓila i mangadzaho, vhavhuyelwa vha bvaho kha zwitshavha vhuvhili hazwo, hu tshi khou katelwa vhavhuyelwa vha RDP vhe vha tshenzhela tshiedziso tshi tshimbidzwaho nga muvhuso, vho sumbedza u takalela tshiedziso tsha u ḓibveledzisa wo thusedzwa nga muvhuso u fhira u isa phanḓa na nḓisedzo i tshimbidzwaho nga rakonṱiraka. Ngudo i themendela uri muvhuso u shanduke u bva kha mushumo wawo wa u vha mufhaṱi wa nnḓu muhulwane u ya kha u vha mutshimbidzi na mukonisi. Kha vhuimo uvhu, muvhuso u ḓo ṋetshedza vhavhuyelwa mavu o ṋetshedzwaho tshumelo, vhudzulo ho tsireledzeaho, themamveledziso ya ndeme na zwishumiswa zwa u fhaṱa, ngeno u tshi khou maanḓafhadza zwitshavha uri zwi langule maitele azwo a u fhaṱa. Itshi tshiedziso tsha u ḓibveledzisa wo thusedzwa nga muvhuso tshi tshimbilelana na Kuitele kwa Nnḓu dza Vhathu kwo thomiwaho kha Milayo ya Nnḓu ya Lushaka na nḓila ya mbekanyamaitele ya Nḓivhadzamulayotibe i kwamaho Vhudzulo ha Vhathu ya 2024. Ngudo i isa phanḓa na u themendela mavu o vhewaho zwavhuḓi na u khwaṱhisa maitele a u shela mulenzhe ha vhavhuyelwa kha zwiimo zwoṱhe zwa maitele a u ṋetshedza nnḓu. mvelelo dzi shumaho dza idzi themendelo ndi dza ndeme kha mbekanyamitele ya nnḓu, kupulanele kwa ḓoroboni na mavhusele a masipala Afrika Tshipembe. U shanduka u ya kha tshiedziso tsha u ḓibveledzisa wo thusedzwa nga muvhuso zwi ḓo fhungudza muhwalo wa zwa masheleni kha muvhuso nga u dzhenisa vhavhuyelwa sa vhashelamulenzhe vho khwaṱhaho kha u fhaṱwa ha nnḓu dzavho. Ngauralo, u engedza mugaganyagwama wa nnḓu hu si na u fhungudza vhuimo kana muvhuyelwa. Tshiedziso tsho dzinginywaho u ḓo ṱuṱuwedza nga fulufhelo vhuṋe ha tshitshavha ho khwaṱhaho, u khwinisa ndondolo ya nnḓu na vhupo vhu bvelelaho. Tshi ḓo dovha tsha vula zwikili zwa u fhaṱa zwi shumaho, nḓivho yapo na vhuṱumani ha matshilisano ho ṱanganaho na zwitshavha zwine zwa hola masheleni maṱuku, zwine tshiedziso tshi tshimbidzwaho nga rakhonṱiraka tsha zwi bvisela khagala nga nḓila yo dzudzanyeaho. Ngudo iyi i shela mulenzhe kha therisano dza mbekanyamaitele ya nnḓu Afrika Tshipembe nga u ṋetshedza vhuṱanzi ha vhukuma, ho sedzaho kha vhavhuyelwa vhu sumbedzaho uri tshiedziso tsha u ḓibveledzisa wo tikedzwa zwavhuḓi ndi nḓila i shumaho nahone i takalelwaho u fhira nḓila ya zwino ine ya tshimbidzwa nga muvhuso.