https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/26 Tue, 05 May 2026 16:30:24 GMT 2026-05-05T16:30:24Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32370 The assessment of financial risks of Open Distance e-Learning (ODeL) universities : empirical evidence from the University of South Africa Nkosi, Joyce Background In South Africa, universities encounter a diverse range of financial risks that can affect their stability and long-term sustainability. These risks stem from internal factors, such as operational inefficiencies, and external factors, including economic fluctuations and policy developments. Effective identification and management of these risks is vital for ensuring the continued success of higher education institutions. Problem statement Despite the growing importance of financial risk management in higher education, there is limited understanding of how open-distance e-learning (ODeL) institutions, such as the University of South Africa (Unisa), experience and address these risks. In particular, there is a lack of clarity regarding the types of financial risks these institutions face and the extent to which their staff are equipped to manage them. Objectives The current study aimed to identify the types of financial risks faced by an open-distance e-learning university. It also aimed to assess the risk mitigation techniques currently employed. Finally, the study aimed to determine the training needs of staff responsible for managing financial risk. Methodology Using the University of South Africa (Unisa) as a case study, a quantitative research design using exploratory factor analysis Cross-sectional data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire distributed to 140 respondents within Unisa. The cross-sectional data provided insights into risk exposure and management practices. Results The results show that the Unisa is mostly exposed to credit and operational risks. Exposure to liquidity and market risks was observed to be low. Furthermore, the results show that there is a notable gap in staff training in risk management interventions in areas such as credit and operational risk management. Staff also demonstrated limited understanding of liquidity and market risk, indicating a broader issue in risk awareness and preparedness. Conclusion The study concludes that the concept of financial risk management in ODeL institutions is still in its infancy. Notably, liquidity and market risk are still unclear to staff in the department responsible for financial risk management, posing a threat to effective financial governance. Policy implications The study recommends the implementation of robust internal control systems, regular auditing and investing in reliable technological infrastructure to manage financial risks more effectively. Additionally, it suggests appointing a dedicated risk officer and developing a comprehensive financial risk management guide to inform institutional decision-making and improve risk response strategies.; Lingemuva ENingizimu Afrika, emanyuvesi ahlangabetana nebungoti betetimali lobehlukahlukene lobungatsintsa kusimama kwawo kanye nekugcinwa kwawo kwesikhatsi lesidze. Lobungoti buvela etintfweni tangekhatsi, letifana nekungasebenti kahle kwekusebenta, kanye netintfo tangephandle, letifaka ekhatsi kugucugucuka kwemnotfo kanye nekutfutfukiswa kwenchubomgomo. Kukhonjwa nekulawulwa kwalobungoti ngemphumelelo kubaluleke kakhulu ekucinisekiseni kutsi tikhungo temfundvo lephakeme tiyachubeka nekuphumelela. Sitatimende senkinga Nanobe kubaluleka lokukhulako kwekulawula bungoti betetimali emfundvweni lephakeme, kunekuvisisa lokunemkhawulo kwekutsi tikhungo tekufundzela usekudzeni kanye nekufundzela nge-inthanethi (i-ODeL) letivulekile, njenge Nyuvesi yaseNingizimu Afrika (i-Unisa), tihlangabetana njani nalobungoti futsi tilungisa njani. Ikakhulukati, kunekungacaci mayelana netinhlobo tebungoti betetimali letikhungo letibukene nato kanye nekutsi tisebenti tato tihlomele kangakanani kutilawula. Tinhloso Lolucwaningo lwanyalo luhlose kutfola tinhlobo tebungoti betetimali letibukene nenyuvesi ye-ODeL. Kwaphindze futsi kwahloswa kuhlola tindlela tekunciphisa bungoti letisetjentiswako nyalo. Ekugcineni, lolucwaningo beluhlose kutfola tidzingo tekuceceshwa kwetisebenti letinesibopho sekulawula bungoti betimali. Indlela yekusebenta Kusetjentiswa i-Unisa njengesifundvo sendzaba, kwamukelwa umklamo welucwaningo lwesilinganiso losebentisa kuhlatiya emaphuzu ekuhlola. Idatha yetigaba letihlangene yabutfwa kusetjentiswa liphepha lemibuto leliphatfwako lelasakatwa kulabaphendvulile labangu-140 ngaphakatsi e-Unisa. Idatha yetigaba letihlangene inikete lwati ngekuchayeka ebungotini kanye netindlela tekulawula. Imiphumela Imiphumela ikhombisa kutsi i-Unisa ichayeke kakhulu ebungotini besikweleti kanye nekusebenta. Kuchayeka ebungoti bemali kanye nemakethe kwabonakala kuphansi. Ngetulu kwaloko, imiphumela ikhombisa kutsi kunesikhala lesibonakalako ekuceceshweni kwetisebenti ekungeneleleni kwekulawula bungoti etindzaweni letifana nekulawula bungoti besikweleti kanye nekusebenta. Tisebenti tiphindze futsi takhombisa kuvisisa lokunemkhawulo kwekukhishwa kwemali kanye nebungoti bemakethe, lokukhombisa ludzaba lolubanti ekucapheleni bungoti kanye nekulungela. Siphetfo Lolucwaningo luphetsa ngekutsi umcondvo wekulawula bungoti betetimali etikhungweni te-ODeL solo awukatfutfukiswa. Kuyaphawuleka kutsi, kukhishwa kwemali kanye nebungoti bemakethe solo akukacaci kubasebenti belitiko lelibukene nekulawula bungoti betetimali, lokubeka lusongo ekuphatfweni kwetimali lokuphumelelako. Imiphumela yenchubomgomo Lolucwaningo luncoma kucala kusebenta kwetinhlelo tekulawula tangekhatsi leticinile, kucwaninga njalo kanye nekutjala imali kusakhiwonchanti setebucwepheshe lesetsembekile kute kulawulwe bungoti betetimali ngemphumelelo. Ngetulu kwaloko, kuphakamisa kukhetsa sikhulu lesitinikele sebungoti kanye nekutfutfukiswa kwemhlahlandlela lophelele wekulawula bungoti betetimali kute kwatiswe kwenta tincumo tesikhungo kanye nekutfutfukisa emasu ekubukana nebungoti.; Matsalwa yale ndzaku/Matimu Etikweni ra Afrika Dzonga tiyunivhesiti ti hlangana na makhombo yo hambana hambana eka swa timali leswi swinga ha vaka na nxungweto ekamatirhelo na vumundzuku bya tona.. Makhombo lawa yangaha suka eka mintlimbo yale ndzeni, leyi fana ka na mafambiselo, na mintlimbo yale handle,ku katsa na ku tsekatseka ka ikhonomi hambi kuri ku tumbuluxiwa ka milawu ya mafambiselo.Ku longoloxiwa hivurhonwana ka makhombo lawa naku ya lawula swinga pfuna ku endla leswaku swiyenge swa tidzondzo tale hehla swi humelala eka migingiriko ya swona. Nhlamuselo ya xiphiqo Hambi leswi ku nga na ku ndlandlamuka ka xilaveko xaku lawuka makhombo ya swatimali eka xiyenge xa tidzondzo tale henhla, kahari na ku kayivela ka ntwisiso wa ndlela leyi ti Yunivhesisi leti nyikaka vukorhokeri bya dyondzo yale kule na thekinoloji tani hi Yunivhesiti ya Afrika Dzonga ti hlanganaka na makhombo no thlela ti ringeta kuya lulamisa. Hiku kongoma , ka hari na ku kayivela mayela na tinxakanxaka ta makhombo ya swatimali lawa swiyenge leswi swi langutaneke na wona na ndlela leyi vatirhi eka swiyenge leswi va faneleke ku leteriwa hi tindlela taku lwisana na makhombo lawa. Swikongomelo Vulavisisi lebya haku endliwaka abyi ngongoma eka ku ku fikelela ku kumisisa tinxaka ta makhombo lawa ya langutana na tiyunivhesiti leti nyikaka vukorhokeri bya dyondzo yale kule na thekinoloji. Byi thlela byi xopaxopa tindlela leti tirhisiwaka eka nkarhi wa sweswi ku papalata makhombo lawa.Xo hetelela vulavisisi abyi lava ku kumisisa leswaku hi byihi vuleteri leswi vatirhi lava tirhanaka na ku lawula makhombo ya swa timali vabyi lavaka . Maendlelo ya vulavisisi Ku tirhisiwe ndzavisiso wa Yunivhesiti ya Afrika Dzonga bya maendlelo ya ku tirhisa ndzavisiso wa tinhlayonhlayo . Vuxokoxoko byi kumiwe hiku tirhisa mpfampfarhuto wa swivutiso lowu tumbuluxiweke hi mulavisisi ,lowu nga nyikiwa eka vanhu va dzana na makume mune ku suka e UNISA Vuxokoxoko lebyi kumiweke ku suka eka swivutiso abyi paluxa hi makhombo na malawulelo ya wona ku suka eka lava tekeke xiave eka vulavisisi. Mbuyelo Mbuyelo wu komba leswaku UNISA yi langutane na makhombo ya mali leyi nga kona na swona makhombo ya xibundzu la langutela yari enhansi swinene.Hi hala thlelo kuna vangwa kumbe ku kayivela ekaku leteriwa ka vatirhi eka xiyenge xa malawuleyo ya swikweleti na makhombo ya mafambiselo.s. Vatirhi va kombise kuva na nkayivelo lowu kulu wa vutivi eka xiyenge xa makhombo eka swa timali, nankayivelo wa vutivi eka swa makhomboya mabindzu, leswi swinga na nxungweto lowu kulu eka vutivi bya makhombo hiku angarhela hambi kuri ku lulamela ka vona kuya emahweni. Mahetelelo Vulavisisi lebyi byi komba leswaku kahari na nkayivelo eka xiyenge xa mafambiselo ya makhombo ya swa timali eka xiyenge xa swa tidzondzo leti nyikaka dyondzo yale kule na thekinoloji. Swahari tano,mhaka ya mafambiselo ya swikweleti na bindzu kahariki nthlonthlo eka vatirhi eka dzawulo leyi lawula mafambiselo ya makhombo ya swa timali , leswi tisaka nxungweto eka mafambiselo lama nene ya swa timali. Switandzaku swa milawu ya mafamiselo Vulavisisi byi bumabumela kuva ku tirhisiwa ndlela leyi tiyeke ya malawaulelo eka ndzwawulo,swikambelo swa nkarhi na nkarhi ,na kuva ku vuvekisiwa eka switirhisiwa swa nkoka swa xitekinoji, kuri ndlela yo ringela ku lawula makhombo ya swa timal. Nthlandla kambirhi,vulavisisi byi thlela byi bumabumela ku thoriwa ka mutirhi loyi angata langutana na makhombo ya swa timali no thlela a mpfampfarhuta no tumbuluxa tsalwa leri ngata tsundzuxa ndzawulo hi swiboho leswi ngaha tekiwaka ku antswisa mandlelo yo lwisana na makhombo lawa yanga vaka kona. Abstract in English, SiSwati and Xitsonga Sat, 01 Mar 2025 00:00:00 GMT https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32370 2025-03-01T00:00:00Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32148 The casual relationship between growth and disaggregate public expenditure in Eswatini Dlamini, Nomalungelo Nkhosingphile Public expenditure in the Kingdom of Eswatini appears to be increasing annually; however, it does not seem to be growing at the same rate as economic growth, which is concerning for a middle-income developing economy. Thus, the main objective of the study is to investigate the relation-ship between disaggregated public expenditure (which includes capital government expenditures and recurrent government expenditures) and economic growth. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to investigate the relationship between disaggregated government expenditures and economic growth in the Kingdom of Eswatini. The study examines this relationship empiri-cally using the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) model on annual data for the period from 1980 to 2023, which tests the long-run and short-run relationships between these variables. Additionally, the study employs controls for variables such as the inflation rate, capital investment, human capital, population growth rate and a dummy variable to capture the COVID-19 pandemic. The Error Correction Model (ECM) is further employed to examine the long-run and the short-run relationships. The results of the study indicate that there is indeed a statistically significant positive relationship between recurrent government expenditures and economic growth in the long-run, while capital government expenditures and economic growth have a negative but statistically sig-nificant relationship in the short-run. After conducting the Granger Causality Tests, the study fur-ther observes that the economy of Eswatini follows Wagner’s law in that economic growth causes recurrent government expenditure and capital expenditures and the reverse is not true. The study therefore recommends that the government of Eswatini spends more on recurrent expenditures than it does on capital expenditures. Tue, 12 Aug 2025 00:00:00 GMT https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32148 2025-08-12T00:00:00Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32147 Youth unemployment and crime creation in Nigeria: an exploratory study Oyesanya, Emmanuel Olalekan For ages, nations have had to deal with one form of crime or another, a phenomenon now referred to as the ‘darker side of humanity,’ which has led to an increase in the amount of literature available to guide this study. The traditional economic model of crime explains that a criminal act depends on the benefits of successfully committing a crime. Youths are people between the ages of 15 and 24, with a total of about one billion youths globally. One in five people globally falls within this age range. A staggering 90 percent of these youths are located in developing countries. This situation raises concerns about the potential implications of joblessness on youth behaviour and social stability. Unemployment may push some youths toward criminal activity as a means of survival or social expression. This study seeks to explore this possibility by investigating the relationship between youth unemployment and crime in Nigeria. Drawing from existing literature, newspapers, and secondary data from sources such as the National Bureau of Statistics, the World Bank, and official police crime records, the study examines whether rising unemployment among Nigerian youths significantly contributes to crime trends across the country. This study aims to explain the concepts of youth unemployment and crime, examine common crimes committed by youths in Nigeria, identify prevalent types of unemployment, explore the link between youth unemployment and crime, and determine the region with the highest crime rate. Using qualitative methods, charts, and tables, the study analyzes data spanning different periods to uncover patterns and potential causality. This study was driven by the persistent link between youth unemployment and crime in Nigeria. It employed relevant available data, charts and tables from trusted sources to explain and investigate the patterns and inform practical solutions. The results of this study indicate that Nigeria has a limited number of formal employment opportunities for its youths, resulting in criminal behaviour, especially offenses against property and persons, as seen by the substantial presence of youths in the criminal justice system. This unemployment crisis is a result of the high population density of young people and the limited formal job market. The study concludes by recommending integrated policy measures that prioritize youth employment Thu, 13 Nov 2025 00:00:00 GMT https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32147 2025-11-13T00:00:00Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32144 The nexus between enterprise risk management and risk-adjusted bank performance: evidence from South Africa Chibvongodze, Rueben Risk-adjusted bank performance provides an objective performance measurement framework by adjusting profits for risk, unlike historical and arbitrary accounting performance measures, which do not account for risk. While substantial empirical evidence exists on the impact of enterprise risk management (ERM) on bank performance, few studies, if any, have focused on the nexus between ERM and risk-adjusted bank performance using robust measures. The computation of risk-adjusted bank performance measures remains an area in need of new knowledge development and further empirical exploration. The purpose of the study was to determine the nexus and impact of ERM on risk-adjusted bank performance in South Africa. The study examined the effect of ERM sophistication (ERMS) from both a general bank performance and risk-adjusted bank performance perspective. It also investigated the impact of the ERM Index (ERMI) from both a bank performance and risk-adjustment perspective. ERMS was used to gauge the level of advancement of a bank’s ERM capabilities and their impact on bank value creation and sustainability. The study sample consisted of 10 South African banks over a 21-year period (2002–2022). Panel data, covering both the global financial crisis (GFC) of 2007 to 2009 and the Covid-19 period of 2020 to 2022, were used for the study. Secondary data were sourced from published audited financial statements. Panel data multiple regression analysis was used to test statistical relationships. Dependent variables included return on assets (ROA), return on equity (ROE), Tobin’s Q, risk-adjusted return on capital (RAROC) and the modified z-score (M_ZScore). Independent variables included financial slack, interest rates, inflation, gross domestic product (GDP) and foreign exchange rate. Using Hausman’s (1978) test, a fixed effects model (FEM) rather than a random effects model (REM) was selected for the study. The study proposed a risk-adjusted ERMI that combines qualitative bank-based ERM themes and quantitative bank-focused indicators from the CAMELS bank performance measurement framework. Capital adequacy ratio (CAR), RAROC and M_ZScore variables were used to evaluate ERM from a bank risk-adjusted performance perspective. The empirical results show that the risk-focused performance measures, RAROC and M_ZScore, are positively associated with improved risk-adjusted bank performance. The accounting performance measure, ROA, and the financial market measure, Tobin’s Q, were also found to be positively associated with improved bank performance. However, an inverse relationship was found between another performance measure, ROE, and bank performance, indicating that empirical outcomes depend on the specific measure used. The study makes several contributions. Unlike traditional studies that focus on ROA and ROE, this study strengthens the theoretical link between ERM and risk-adjusted performance measures, reinforcing the concept of risk-return trade-off in banking. Empirically, the study contributes to literature and research by developing and empirically testing ERMI, thereby providing a structured approach to measuring ERMS using both qualitative and quantitative data instead of binary ERM indicators. Methodologically, the study goes beyond the traditional approaches of assessing bank performance through measures such as RAROC and M_ZScore to account for banking risk in performance evaluation. The empirical outcomes offer valuable new insights for prudential regulatory authorities and banking executives, including chief risk officers (CROs), to strengthen both national and global financial systems and to enhance stability and certainty in financial markets. Abstract and text in English Sun, 01 Dec 2024 00:00:00 GMT https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32144 2024-12-01T00:00:00Z