https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/132 Tue, 11 Aug 2026 04:32:34 GMT 2026-08-11T04:32:34Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32898 Exploring Eswatini’s environmental compliance management, monitoring, and enforcement issues of construction projects Manyatsi, Mason Isaac This study explored issues of environmental compliance management, enforcement, and monitoring in Eswatini’s construction industry, focusing on case study construction projects in the Hhohho Region. Although legal frameworks do exist, Eswatini still experiences widespread environmental non-compliance in the construction industry, leading to environmental degradation and threatening efforts of environmental protection. The purpose of the research study was to answer the main research question: What are the environmental compliance management, enforcement, and monitoring issues of construction projects in Eswatini? The mechanism for answering the main research question was through the formulation of four sub-questions focusing on global environmental compliance mechanisms, Eswatini’s Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) obligations, issues experienced by EIA follow-up parties of construction projects, and measures of environmental compliance enhancement. The study employed a qualitative research approach, using an exploratory multiple case study design. Data was collected from four (4) construction projects in the Hhohho Region through in-depth interviews with 21 purposively sampled key informants. The key informants included first, second, and third EIA follow-up parties at the selected construction projects. Secondary data gathered for the study included legal and institutional frameworks and policy documents. Data was analysed with the support of ATLAS.ti software to identify themes and patterns from the data. Findings addressing sub-question 1 show that environmental compliance globally relies on an integrated regulatory cycle encompassing planning, implementation, monitoring, enforcement, and adaptive feedback mechanisms. In response to sub-question 2, the study discovered that while Eswatini has established environmental laws and institutional frameworks governing construction projects, there are constraints due to weak enforcement capacity and limited coordination. Results addressing the sub-question 3 showed that first, second, and third EIA follow-up parties experience challenges including limited financial and human resources, poor compliance attitudes among developers and contractors, political interference, and inadequate authority to enforce compliance. Addressing sub-question 4 identified capacity building measures through training and awareness, as well as the adoption of technological advancements for monitoring and policy reform key measures that can enhance environmental compliance at construction projects. An examination of the findings shows a divide between the application of environmental compliance procedures and policy rules. Environmental compliance management, enforcement, and monitoring across construction projects is compromised by weak institutional capacity, dispersed governance systems, and inadequate accountability mechanisms. The study makes a meaningful contribution by providing practical, evidence-based insights into the key factors affecting environmental compliance in Eswatini’s construction sector. The study demonstrates how challenges such as weak enforcement capacity, fragmented governance structures, and limited accountability work together to hinder effective environmental compliance and EIA follow-up. In addition, the study adds to existing knowledge by offering a clearer understanding of these issues within a developing country context, where resource and institutional constraints are common. It also proposes practical ways to improve environmental compliance, including strengthening institutional capacity, improving coordination between stakeholders, and making better use of technology for monitoring and reporting. These contributions are relevant not only for Eswatini, but also for other developing countries facing similar challenges. Sun, 01 Mar 2026 00:00:00 GMT https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32898 2026-03-01T00:00:00Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32800 An evaluation of sustainable water management practices in wildlife tourism at Ngala, Limpopo, South Africa de Kock, Cornelia Christina The sustainable management of water resources has become an increasingly prominent challenge, not only globally but also within wildlife tourism operations, particularly in water-scarce and ecologically significant regions. This study evaluates the sustainability of water management practices at Ngala Safari Lodge and Ngala Tented Camp, located within the Ngala Private Game Reserve in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Using a mixed-methods multiple case study approach, the research assessed both water quantity and water quality over 28 months (November 2022 to February 2025), supported by qualitative insights from staff interviews. Quantitative analysis included the assessment of water consumption trends, litres per bed-night, and seasonal variation, as well as compliance of drinking and effluent water quality with relevant South African standards, benchmarks and legislation. Qualitative interviews explored staff perceptions, operational practices, and organisational commitment to sustainable water management. The findings indicate that water use at both lodges remains relatively consistent throughout the study period and is largely driven by fixed operational demands rather than seasonal climatic variation. Water quality challenges were primarily linked to naturally hard groundwater and infrastructure limitations, with few physical, chemical, or microbial exceedances observed. While strong management commitment and technical interventions were evident, limited staff awareness and behavioural water-saving practices were identified as key gaps. The study highlights the importance of integrating technical systems with staff engagement and education to enhance long-term water sustainability in wildlife tourism operations. Wed, 26 Feb 2025 00:00:00 GMT https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32800 2025-02-26T00:00:00Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32795 Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Practices and Challenges in Selected Durban High Schools, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa Ngcongo, Magareth Thulisile Effective water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services are vital for public health, education and sustainable development. Despite global commitments like the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), significant challenges persist in low- and middle-income countries. This study assessed WASH conditions and Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) practices across 40 high schools representing all five socio-economic quintiles (Quintile 1–5) in Durban, South Africa, with a focus on evaluating services; identifying microbial risks; and developing a risk reduction framework. A mixed-methods approach was employed, incorporating quantitative surveys to assess student knowledge and infrastructure quality, alongside microbiological analyses of drinking water for diarrhoeagenic E. coli. Qualitative insights were gathered through focus groups with school administrators and educators. Findings revealed substantial inequities across school quintiles: lower-quintile schools (1–3) experienced inadequate sanitation, intermittent water supply and poor maintenance, while higher-quintile schools (4–5) demonstrated better facility functionality and hygiene resources. The absence of gender-sensitive sanitation facilities adversely affected female students' dignity during menstruation. Water quality analyses indicated 99.98% compliance with SANS 241:2015 guidelines, although one isolated non-hazardous E. coli instance was detected. Qualitative analyses highlighted systemic issues, including maintenance gaps and insufficient policy support for MHM. The study developed a novel WASH Risk Reduction Framework to guide policymakers and administrators in identifying risks and implementing targeted interventions. By emphasising stakeholder engagement and sustainability, this framework aims to enhance WASH environments in schools. This research supports SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and contributes to SDGs 3 (Good Health), 4 (Quality Education) and 5 (Gender Equality). Thu, 30 Oct 2025 00:00:00 GMT https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32795 2025-10-30T00:00:00Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32787 Analysis of the microbiome of selected drinking water treatment plants, drinking water treated sludge, and water distribution systems Mudau, Khuthadzo Lunsford Microorganisms are crucial for water quality and purification in water treatment and distribution systems. The microbial communities present in untreated water can aid in purification through the biodegradation of contaminants. However, some microbes may be human pathogens that threaten consumer health. The current study analysed microbial diversity in selected drinking water treatment plants, water treatment sludge and drinking water distribution point seasonally over 12 months. Samples were drawn from five selected water treatment plant sites in the Gauteng (A, D and E), Limpopo (B) and Mpumalanga (C) Provinces in South Africa. Selective media culture studies were used for Escherichia coli and Enterococcus species (spp.) quantification and antibiotic resistance profiling for isolates from the samples. Colilert and Enterolert Quanti-Tray 2000 IDEXX methods were used to enumerate total coliforms, E. coli and Enterococcus spp. from water samples from the different water treatment stages. The Kirby-Bauer disc-diffusion technique was used to assess the antibiotic susceptibility of the indicator bacteria isolates. Shotgun metagenomics sequencing using the MGI DNBSEQ-G400 sequencing platform was performed to investigate microbial metagenomic diversity and their functions from the raw water sources, the filtration, sedimentation and disinfection stages, final treated water, treated sludge and distribution system samples. Water physicochemical parameters were assessed, and the obtained results in terms of pH, temperature, turbidity, free chlorine, manganese, ammonia, nitrate, sulphate, iron, and total organic carbon for different stages of treatment, final treated water, drinking water treated sludge and first point in the distribution system varied across the five sampling sites. The physicochemical and microbiological parameters were measured and compared to the drinking water quality guidelines set by the World Health Organization and South African National Standard 241. The results obtained from the IDEXX-defined substrate Colilert/ Quanti-Tray 2000 System (ISO 9308-2:2012) showed the presence of the indicator microorganisms (total coliforms, E. coli and Enterococcus spp.) with variations in their abundance (based on the Most Probable Number) in the raw water sources, sedimentation stage and drinking water treated sludge across the seasons. However, only two of the five treatment plants maintained the acceptable limit of microbiological quality for the final treated water stage, and the distribution systems sampling points complied with the drinking water standards. Using the MGI DNBSEQ-G400 sequencing platform, the following dominant phyla and classes were identified: Euryarcheota and Nitrososphaerota (Archaea phyla), Halobacteria and Methanomicrobia (Archaea classes), Pseudomonadota (bacterial phylum), v Alphaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria and Betaproteobacteria (bacterial classes), Ascomycota and Basidiomycota (Eukaryota phyla), and Aconoidasida and Sordariomycetes (Eukaryota classes). Despite the observed overlap of dominant phyla and classes in the treatment plant stages, the antibiotic-resistance gene composition and antibiotic class phenotypes exhibit a general trend of a downward shift, showing the efficiency of treatment plants in reducing opportunistic pathogens. Correlation analysis done between physicochemical parameters in the drinking water treatment, distribution, and the Archaea, bacterial and Eukaryota phyla and classes respectively demonstrated a link that existed between the physicochemical parameters and the proliferation of the members of microbial groups. Temperature correlated significantly positively with Gammaproteobacteria (filtration stage at Site D), Alphaproteobacteria (raw water at Site A), sulphate and Alphaproteobacteria (final treated water at Site C), Cynophyceae (raw water at Site A), sulphate and Betaproteobacteria (raw water at Site D and filtration stage at Site A), and nitrate and Bacilli (final treated water at Site E). This correlation clearly showed that changes in the physicochemical parameters could contribute to the selection of the microorganisms that survive in each stage of treatment, including drinking water treated sludge and distribution systems. Functional metagenomes revealed the abundance of antibiotic resistance functions, especially cationic antimicrobial peptide, ßeta-lactam and vancomycin resistance in the final treated water and distribution systems across the selected sampling sites. It can be concluded that selected treatment plant processes effectively reduced the number of indicator organisms. In addition, seasons and different treatment stages influence the microbial diversity of the drinking water samples. In Gauteng Province at Sites A and D, most bacteria, including potential pathogens, were effectively removed by chlorine disinfection. However, some bacteria presented excellent resistance to chlorine. The study was able to provide a profile of microbial diversity (metagenomic diversity of Proteobacteria and Firmicutes in drinking water treatment process). The presence of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms and residual microorganisms in some treated water samples means that these microorganisms are not completely removed during drinking water treatment process and optimisation of drinking water treatment systems can be recommended, giving more attention to the raw water sources, DWTS, and distribution systems in removing the indicator organism and maintaining high-quality drinking water free from pathogens and contaminants. Mon, 07 Jul 2025 00:00:00 GMT https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32787 2025-07-07T00:00:00Z