https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/2908 2026-08-04T06:33:27Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32795 Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Practices and Challenges in Selected Durban High Schools, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa Ngcongo, Magareth Thulisile Effective water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services are vital for public health, education and sustainable development. Despite global commitments like the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), significant challenges persist in low- and middle-income countries. This study assessed WASH conditions and Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) practices across 40 high schools representing all five socio-economic quintiles (Quintile 1–5) in Durban, South Africa, with a focus on evaluating services; identifying microbial risks; and developing a risk reduction framework. A mixed-methods approach was employed, incorporating quantitative surveys to assess student knowledge and infrastructure quality, alongside microbiological analyses of drinking water for diarrhoeagenic E. coli. Qualitative insights were gathered through focus groups with school administrators and educators. Findings revealed substantial inequities across school quintiles: lower-quintile schools (1–3) experienced inadequate sanitation, intermittent water supply and poor maintenance, while higher-quintile schools (4–5) demonstrated better facility functionality and hygiene resources. The absence of gender-sensitive sanitation facilities adversely affected female students' dignity during menstruation. Water quality analyses indicated 99.98% compliance with SANS 241:2015 guidelines, although one isolated non-hazardous E. coli instance was detected. Qualitative analyses highlighted systemic issues, including maintenance gaps and insufficient policy support for MHM. The study developed a novel WASH Risk Reduction Framework to guide policymakers and administrators in identifying risks and implementing targeted interventions. By emphasising stakeholder engagement and sustainability, this framework aims to enhance WASH environments in schools. This research supports SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and contributes to SDGs 3 (Good Health), 4 (Quality Education) and 5 (Gender Equality). 2025-10-30T00:00:00Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32787 Analysis of the microbiome of selected drinking water treatment plants, drinking water treated sludge, and water distribution systems Mudau, Khuthadzo Lunsford Microorganisms are crucial for water quality and purification in water treatment and distribution systems. The microbial communities present in untreated water can aid in purification through the biodegradation of contaminants. However, some microbes may be human pathogens that threaten consumer health. The current study analysed microbial diversity in selected drinking water treatment plants, water treatment sludge and drinking water distribution point seasonally over 12 months. Samples were drawn from five selected water treatment plant sites in the Gauteng (A, D and E), Limpopo (B) and Mpumalanga (C) Provinces in South Africa. Selective media culture studies were used for Escherichia coli and Enterococcus species (spp.) quantification and antibiotic resistance profiling for isolates from the samples. Colilert and Enterolert Quanti-Tray 2000 IDEXX methods were used to enumerate total coliforms, E. coli and Enterococcus spp. from water samples from the different water treatment stages. The Kirby-Bauer disc-diffusion technique was used to assess the antibiotic susceptibility of the indicator bacteria isolates. Shotgun metagenomics sequencing using the MGI DNBSEQ-G400 sequencing platform was performed to investigate microbial metagenomic diversity and their functions from the raw water sources, the filtration, sedimentation and disinfection stages, final treated water, treated sludge and distribution system samples. Water physicochemical parameters were assessed, and the obtained results in terms of pH, temperature, turbidity, free chlorine, manganese, ammonia, nitrate, sulphate, iron, and total organic carbon for different stages of treatment, final treated water, drinking water treated sludge and first point in the distribution system varied across the five sampling sites. The physicochemical and microbiological parameters were measured and compared to the drinking water quality guidelines set by the World Health Organization and South African National Standard 241. The results obtained from the IDEXX-defined substrate Colilert/ Quanti-Tray 2000 System (ISO 9308-2:2012) showed the presence of the indicator microorganisms (total coliforms, E. coli and Enterococcus spp.) with variations in their abundance (based on the Most Probable Number) in the raw water sources, sedimentation stage and drinking water treated sludge across the seasons. However, only two of the five treatment plants maintained the acceptable limit of microbiological quality for the final treated water stage, and the distribution systems sampling points complied with the drinking water standards. Using the MGI DNBSEQ-G400 sequencing platform, the following dominant phyla and classes were identified: Euryarcheota and Nitrososphaerota (Archaea phyla), Halobacteria and Methanomicrobia (Archaea classes), Pseudomonadota (bacterial phylum), v Alphaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria and Betaproteobacteria (bacterial classes), Ascomycota and Basidiomycota (Eukaryota phyla), and Aconoidasida and Sordariomycetes (Eukaryota classes). Despite the observed overlap of dominant phyla and classes in the treatment plant stages, the antibiotic-resistance gene composition and antibiotic class phenotypes exhibit a general trend of a downward shift, showing the efficiency of treatment plants in reducing opportunistic pathogens. Correlation analysis done between physicochemical parameters in the drinking water treatment, distribution, and the Archaea, bacterial and Eukaryota phyla and classes respectively demonstrated a link that existed between the physicochemical parameters and the proliferation of the members of microbial groups. Temperature correlated significantly positively with Gammaproteobacteria (filtration stage at Site D), Alphaproteobacteria (raw water at Site A), sulphate and Alphaproteobacteria (final treated water at Site C), Cynophyceae (raw water at Site A), sulphate and Betaproteobacteria (raw water at Site D and filtration stage at Site A), and nitrate and Bacilli (final treated water at Site E). This correlation clearly showed that changes in the physicochemical parameters could contribute to the selection of the microorganisms that survive in each stage of treatment, including drinking water treated sludge and distribution systems. Functional metagenomes revealed the abundance of antibiotic resistance functions, especially cationic antimicrobial peptide, ßeta-lactam and vancomycin resistance in the final treated water and distribution systems across the selected sampling sites. It can be concluded that selected treatment plant processes effectively reduced the number of indicator organisms. In addition, seasons and different treatment stages influence the microbial diversity of the drinking water samples. In Gauteng Province at Sites A and D, most bacteria, including potential pathogens, were effectively removed by chlorine disinfection. However, some bacteria presented excellent resistance to chlorine. The study was able to provide a profile of microbial diversity (metagenomic diversity of Proteobacteria and Firmicutes in drinking water treatment process). The presence of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms and residual microorganisms in some treated water samples means that these microorganisms are not completely removed during drinking water treatment process and optimisation of drinking water treatment systems can be recommended, giving more attention to the raw water sources, DWTS, and distribution systems in removing the indicator organism and maintaining high-quality drinking water free from pathogens and contaminants. 2025-07-07T00:00:00Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32755 Insights into the microbiology of selected drinking water treatment plants and sludge Ntobeng, Lesoka Reneiloe Drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) play a crucial role in treating raw water sources to potable quality. Contaminants in drinking water can pose serious health concerns. The study evaluated the microbial diversity of raw water, the treatment stages, treated water, and the sludge of three DWTPs in the Northwest and Gauteng provinces over a 12-month monitoring period. Microbial and physicochemical parameters of the were analysed. Enumeration of E. coli and Enterococcus spp. was conducted using Colilert-18 and Enterolert Quanti-Tray/2000 IDEXX. Heterotrophic plate counts (HBC) were performed to quantify heterotrophic bacteria. Antibiotic resistance of the bacteriological indicators was assessed using the disc diffusion method. Microbial diversity and functional metagenomic profiles were analysed using the shotgun metagenomics sequencing approach. Correlation analysis was conducted to determine relationships between bacterial communities, treatment stages, raw water and the physicochemical parameters. All DWTPs achieved approximately 90% reduction in bacteriological indicator across the seasons. Most of the isolated bacteriological indicators showed resistance to beta-lactams class of antibiotics. Based on metagenomic analysis, Euryarchaeota and Nitrososphaerota (Archaea phyla), Pseudomonadota (Bacterial phyla), Ascomycota and Basidiomycota (Eukaryota phyla), were abundant in the water and sludge samples. Correlation analysis showed that pH, temperature, nitrates, sulphate, EC, TDS, and Fe were associated with the proliferation of the bacteria. Metabolism functional genes were abundant across the sampling points. 2026-02-01T00:00:00Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32573 Assessing the impact of landfill sites on soil and water quality in neighbouring communities : a case study of Ga-Rankuwa Township, Gauteng Province of South Africa Matlakala, Icaboth Tshwarelo Globally, solid waste generation is increasing due to accelerated population growth, rapid urbanisation, and economic activities. Consequently, the inadequate, absent, and poor planning and implementation of waste management in Ga-Rankuwa results in more waste in landfills. Although landfills carry a huge amount of waste, unmanaged waste can cause an increase in greenhouse gases, a reduction in the aesthetic of the environment, and untreated leachate pollutes surrounding water and soils, especially when proper procedures and maintenance are not followed. Regardless of how much research and awareness are done on this waste management method, environmental contamination is still evident due to inadequate/improper monitoring. The study aimed to assess the environmental impacts of the landfill site on soil and water quality in Ga-Rankuwa township. Soil samples were collected at the landfill perimeter in all 4 cardinal points and at 1 km and 2 km away from the 1st point, etcetera. Heavy metals, including Chromium, Mercury, and Lead, were assessed per sample for possible contamination by the landfill. Water samples were collected by directly dipping the containers in the nearby stream to collect water samples (upper river, mid river and lower river sections). The samples were taken to a laboratory for analysis, and further statistical tests and indices were used, and further analysis was conducted using XLSTAT. The water salinity and pollution indicators were assessed using pH, major cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+), phosphorus and heavy metals in soil and river samples near a landfill. Results showed significant variability in soil pH, with more acidic conditions closer to the landfill, likely due to leachate migration. Although heavy metal concentrations were elevated at certain sites, all values remained below WHO permissible limits and were classified as uncontaminated according to Müller's Geo-accumulation Index. River water showed slightly alkaline conditions, however, nutrient enrichment led to poor water quality. Trophic State Index (TSI) values for phosphorus exceeded 100 across all sites, classifying the river as hypereutrophic and identifying it as a pollution hotspot. While sodium values remained within acceptable limits for irrigation, microbial analysis revealed elevated amounts of E. coli and total coliforms downstream, indicating potential public health risks. It is recommended that landfill operators adopt advanced engineering solutions, such as state-of-the-art leachate collection and treatment systems, to minimise the release of harmful contaminants into adjacent soil and water bodies. Furthermore, the integration of waste segregation at source and comprehensive recycling programs should be prioritised to reduce the volume of non-biodegradable and hazardous waste entering landfills. vi 2025-11-28T00:00:00Z