https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/26 2026-05-09T04:05:18Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32433 Empirical investigation of the effects of trade openness on poverty in South Africa and Lesotho Mtolo, Zimvo The study examined the impact of trade openness on poverty in South Africa and Lesotho separately. The study used the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) bounds testing approach with annual data from 1980 to 2019. The study used the consumption-based measure of poverty, measured by consumption expenditure as a target variable of investigation. The study further employed three measures of trade openness, which are sum of trade to GDP, the ratio of exports to GDP, and imports to GDP ratio. The use of three proxies of trade openness allowed the study to check the robustness of the results and to examine the individual effects of exports and imports on poverty. As a contribution to existing literature, the study included a dummy variable for Lesotho to capture the effect of the structural break that occurred from 1990 resulting from retrenchments of Lesotho nationals from South African mines. The overarching aim of the study is to contribute to the ongoing literature on the extent in which trade openness impacts poverty in South Africa and Lesotho, which are members of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU). The pursuit of the present study, among other things, is motivated by SACU’s mandate highlighting the need to foster sustainable economic growth and development among member countries. Such a mandate is underpinned by a focus on generating employment opportunities and alleviating poverty in the SACU area. The study provides a comparison of how the impact of trade openness on poverty differs between South Africa which is an upper-middle income country and Lesotho which is a lower middle-income country. The comparison also considers if the results differ with different proxies of trade openness. The results show that for South Africa, in the long run and short run, trade openness does not lead to poverty reduction, irrespective of the proxy used to measure trade openness. Instead, in the long run, trade openness, proxied by the sum of trade to GDP and the ratio of imports to GDP, has a negative effect on poverty. In the short run, the sum of trade/GDP and exports/GDP are both insignificant to poverty while imports/GDP have a negative impact on poverty. For Lesotho, in the long run, sum of trade/GDP is insignificant to poverty while exports/GDP and imports/GDP have a positive effect on poverty. In the short run, the sum of trade/GDP has a positive impact on poverty, exports/GDP have a negative effect on poverty while imports/GDP are insignificant to poverty. The coefficient of the dummy variable is negative and significant in the short run, confirming the evidence of a structural break. These results suggest that policies adopted in South Africa have not brought significant poverty alleviation. This could be an indication of a situation where policies implemented over the past tend to prevent the poor from benefiting from the gains of trade openness. Based on the findings, the main recommendation for South Africa is that policymakers could review the policies in place and understand the unintended consequences of each policy on poverty reduction. Policymakers in Lesotho could ensure that they adopt policies that benefit the poor directly. If well implemented, such policies could provide relief that will protect the poor from short term adjustment costs arising from trade openness. In view of the overall findings, the current study, therefore, recommends that there be a critical review of policies to assess unintended consequences of trade openness that may lead to increased poverty and ensure alignment of policies to overall poverty reduction objectives. In this context, the study recommends that the mechanism of distributing gains from trade be reviewed to ensure that gains from trade openness, such that the returns from trade, including funds from SACU revenue, are invested towards poverty reduction.; Bofuma ke sehlooho sa bohlokwa haholo se bohareng ba Dipheo tsa Ntlafatso ya Dilemo tse Sekete le Dipheo tsa Ntlafatso ya Moshwelella jwalo ka ha di hlahiswa ke Matjhaba a Kopaneng. Kahoo, phuputso ena e batlisisa phello ya ho buleha ha kgwebo bofumeng dinaheng tse pedi tse kgethilweng tsa Mokgatlo wa Lekgetho wa Dinaha tsa Afrika e Borwa (SACU), e leng, Lesotho le Rephabliki ya Afrika Borwa. Naha ya Lesotho e nkwa e le naha e sa tswelang pele haholo mme e behilwe boemong ba naha e futsanehileng, ha Afrika Borwa e le naha e ntseng e tswela pele moruong eo hape e nkilweng e le naha e hodimo-dimo. Nako ya phuputso e akaretsa 1980 ho isa 2019, e leng nako ya sewa sa pele ho COVID-19. Phuputsong e matla ya phello ya ho buleha ha kgwebo bofumeng, phuputso e sebedisa mokgwa wa tlhahlobo ya meedi ya ho dieha ho tsamaiswa ka mokgwa o ikemetseng (ARDL) ho kopanya. Kaha maemo a bofuma a ntse a tswela pele Afrika Borwa le Lesotho, sepheo se seholo sa phuputso ena ke ho kenya letsoho dipatlisisong tsa hore na ho buleha ha kgwebo ya matjhaba ho ama bofuma hakae dinaheng tse kgethilweng tsa SACU. Takatso ya phuputso ya jwale, hara tse ding, e susumetswa ke thomo ya SACU e totobatsang tlhokeho ya ho kgothalletsa kgolo le ntlafatso ya moruo wa moshwelella hara dinaha tseo e leng ditho. Thomo e jwalo e tshehetswa ke tsepamiso ya maikutlo hodima ho hlahisa menyetla ya mesebetsi le ho fokotsa bofuma sebakeng sa SACU. Kemedi ya bofuma e sebedisitsweng phuputsong ena ke Malapa le Mekgatlo e sa Etsang Phaello e Sebeletsang ditshenyehelo tsa Malapa tsa ho qetela tsa tshebediso ya motho ka mong tse lekantsweng ka 2015 US$ kamehla. Tlhaloso ya kemedi ena ke hore ha ditshenyehelo tsa ho qetela tsa tshebediso ya tjhelete ya malapa di le hodimo, ho fokotsa sekgahla sa bofuma. Diphetoho tse hlalosang tse sebedisitsweng tlhahlobong di kenyelletsa ho buleha ha kgwebo, e emetsweng ke thepa e iswang kantle ho naha le e tswang kahare ho naha e le karolo ya Kakaretso ya Dihlahiswa tsa Lehae (GDP), ho phahama ha ditheko ho emetsweng ke Indekse ya Theko ya Moreki, kgolo ya moruo e emetsweng ke GDP motho ka mong, le thuto e emetsweng ke tshebediso ya tjhelete ya mmuso thutong e le peresente ya GDP. Diphetho tse matla di senola diphumano tse latelang mabapi le hore na ho buleha ha kgwebo ho ama bofuma ka nako e kgutshwane le nako e telele jwang: sa pele, bakeng sa Afrika Borwa, phuputso e fumana hore phapang ya ho buleha ha kgwebo e bonahala ka dipalo ka katisi e mpe. Sena se fana ka maikutlo a hore keketseho ya ho buleha ha kgwebo e amahanngwa le ho theoha ha ditshenyehelo tsa tshebediso ya tjhelete malapeng, ho lebisang ho, keketseho ya bofuma. Ha ho bapiswa, phuputso e fumana hore ho phahama ha ditheko ho na le dipalo palo tse nang le katisi e mpe, ho bolelang hore ho eketseha ha ho phahama ha ditheko ho lebisang ho ho fokotseha ha ditshenyehelo tsa tshebediso ya ditjhelete ya malapa le keketseho e tsamaellang ya bofuma. Phuputso e fumana hore kgolo ya moruo e bonahala ka dipalo-palo ka katisi e ntle, e leng se bontshang hore ha kgolo ya moruo e ntlafala, lekeno la tjhelete la malapa le lona e ya ntlafala, kahoo bofuma bo a fokotseha. Ho phaella moo, thuto e bonahala ka dipalo-palo tse nang le katisi e ntle, e bolelang hore keketseho ya ditshenyehelo tsa mmuso thutong e lebisa ho eketseha ha ditshenyehelo tsa tshebediso ya tjhelete ya malapa le ho fokotseha ho tsamaellanang ha bofuma. Diphetho tsa Afrika Borwa di kenya letsoho diphuputsong tse teng tse fumaneng hore ho buleha ha kgwebo ho kenya letsoho hampe phokotsong ya bofuma. Sena se bolela hore ho buleha kgwebong ho amahanngwa le ho fokotseha ha ditshenyehelo tsa tshebediso ya tjhelete ya malapa, kahoo bofuma bo a eketseha. Bakeng sa Lesotho, diphumano tsa hona jwale di dumellana le diphumano tse fetileng, ho latela moo ho fumanweng hore bolokolohi ba kgwebo ha bo fetole phokotso ya bofuma dinaheng tse sa tswelang pele moruong. Diphetho tsa Lesotho di bontsha hore thuto ke yona feela e fapaneng e nang le kamano e kgolo le bofuma. Sena se bolela hore keketseho ya ditshenyehelo tsa mmuso thutong e baka keketseho ya ditshenyehelo tsa tshebediso ya ditjhelete ya malapa, le ho fokotseha ha bofuma kamora moo. Dikatisi tsa ho buleha ha kgwebo, ho phahama ha ditheko le kgolo ya moruo ha di na thuso ho latela dipalo. Diphetho tsena di fana ka maikutlo a hore maano a amohetsweng Lesotho ha a so ka a tlisa phokotso ya bofuma. Sena e ka ba sesupo sa boemo boo maano a kentsweng tshebetsong nakong e fetileng a atisang ho thibela mafutsana ho rua molemo melemong ya ho buleha ha kgwebo, kgolo ya moruo le thuto e ntlafetseng. Ka hona, baetsi ba maano ba Lesotho ba ka nahana ho hlahloba maano a hajwale le ho supa maano a tla fella ka hore ho be le basebetsi ba atlehang le ba amanang le phokotso ya bofuma. Bakeng sa Afrika Borwa, baetsi ba maano ba ka hlahloba maano a teng le ho utlwisisa diphello tse sa lebellwang tsa leano le leng le le leng la phokotso ya bofuma. Ka lebaka la diphumano tse akaretsang, phuputso ya hajwale e kgothalletsa hore ho be le tshekatsheko e hlokolosi ya melemo e fumanwang ponahatsong ya kgwebo, e le hore dipoelo tse tswang kgwebong, ho kenyeletswa le ditjhelete tse tswang lekenong la SACU, di tle di tsetelwe bakeng sa phokotso ya bofuma. Sena se ka etswa ka sepheo se hlakileng sa ho utlwisisa phello e sebetsang ya maano a jwalo ho ba futsanehileng ka nako e kgutshwane le e telele. Abstracts and keywords in English and Southern Sotho 2024-09-01T00:00:00Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32370 The assessment of financial risks of Open Distance e-Learning (ODeL) universities : empirical evidence from the University of South Africa Nkosi, Joyce Background In South Africa, universities encounter a diverse range of financial risks that can affect their stability and long-term sustainability. These risks stem from internal factors, such as operational inefficiencies, and external factors, including economic fluctuations and policy developments. Effective identification and management of these risks is vital for ensuring the continued success of higher education institutions. Problem statement Despite the growing importance of financial risk management in higher education, there is limited understanding of how open-distance e-learning (ODeL) institutions, such as the University of South Africa (Unisa), experience and address these risks. In particular, there is a lack of clarity regarding the types of financial risks these institutions face and the extent to which their staff are equipped to manage them. Objectives The current study aimed to identify the types of financial risks faced by an open-distance e-learning university. It also aimed to assess the risk mitigation techniques currently employed. Finally, the study aimed to determine the training needs of staff responsible for managing financial risk. Methodology Using the University of South Africa (Unisa) as a case study, a quantitative research design using exploratory factor analysis Cross-sectional data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire distributed to 140 respondents within Unisa. The cross-sectional data provided insights into risk exposure and management practices. Results The results show that the Unisa is mostly exposed to credit and operational risks. Exposure to liquidity and market risks was observed to be low. Furthermore, the results show that there is a notable gap in staff training in risk management interventions in areas such as credit and operational risk management. Staff also demonstrated limited understanding of liquidity and market risk, indicating a broader issue in risk awareness and preparedness. Conclusion The study concludes that the concept of financial risk management in ODeL institutions is still in its infancy. Notably, liquidity and market risk are still unclear to staff in the department responsible for financial risk management, posing a threat to effective financial governance. Policy implications The study recommends the implementation of robust internal control systems, regular auditing and investing in reliable technological infrastructure to manage financial risks more effectively. Additionally, it suggests appointing a dedicated risk officer and developing a comprehensive financial risk management guide to inform institutional decision-making and improve risk response strategies.; Lingemuva ENingizimu Afrika, emanyuvesi ahlangabetana nebungoti betetimali lobehlukahlukene lobungatsintsa kusimama kwawo kanye nekugcinwa kwawo kwesikhatsi lesidze. Lobungoti buvela etintfweni tangekhatsi, letifana nekungasebenti kahle kwekusebenta, kanye netintfo tangephandle, letifaka ekhatsi kugucugucuka kwemnotfo kanye nekutfutfukiswa kwenchubomgomo. Kukhonjwa nekulawulwa kwalobungoti ngemphumelelo kubaluleke kakhulu ekucinisekiseni kutsi tikhungo temfundvo lephakeme tiyachubeka nekuphumelela. Sitatimende senkinga Nanobe kubaluleka lokukhulako kwekulawula bungoti betetimali emfundvweni lephakeme, kunekuvisisa lokunemkhawulo kwekutsi tikhungo tekufundzela usekudzeni kanye nekufundzela nge-inthanethi (i-ODeL) letivulekile, njenge Nyuvesi yaseNingizimu Afrika (i-Unisa), tihlangabetana njani nalobungoti futsi tilungisa njani. Ikakhulukati, kunekungacaci mayelana netinhlobo tebungoti betetimali letikhungo letibukene nato kanye nekutsi tisebenti tato tihlomele kangakanani kutilawula. Tinhloso Lolucwaningo lwanyalo luhlose kutfola tinhlobo tebungoti betetimali letibukene nenyuvesi ye-ODeL. Kwaphindze futsi kwahloswa kuhlola tindlela tekunciphisa bungoti letisetjentiswako nyalo. Ekugcineni, lolucwaningo beluhlose kutfola tidzingo tekuceceshwa kwetisebenti letinesibopho sekulawula bungoti betimali. Indlela yekusebenta Kusetjentiswa i-Unisa njengesifundvo sendzaba, kwamukelwa umklamo welucwaningo lwesilinganiso losebentisa kuhlatiya emaphuzu ekuhlola. Idatha yetigaba letihlangene yabutfwa kusetjentiswa liphepha lemibuto leliphatfwako lelasakatwa kulabaphendvulile labangu-140 ngaphakatsi e-Unisa. Idatha yetigaba letihlangene inikete lwati ngekuchayeka ebungotini kanye netindlela tekulawula. Imiphumela Imiphumela ikhombisa kutsi i-Unisa ichayeke kakhulu ebungotini besikweleti kanye nekusebenta. Kuchayeka ebungoti bemali kanye nemakethe kwabonakala kuphansi. Ngetulu kwaloko, imiphumela ikhombisa kutsi kunesikhala lesibonakalako ekuceceshweni kwetisebenti ekungeneleleni kwekulawula bungoti etindzaweni letifana nekulawula bungoti besikweleti kanye nekusebenta. Tisebenti tiphindze futsi takhombisa kuvisisa lokunemkhawulo kwekukhishwa kwemali kanye nebungoti bemakethe, lokukhombisa ludzaba lolubanti ekucapheleni bungoti kanye nekulungela. Siphetfo Lolucwaningo luphetsa ngekutsi umcondvo wekulawula bungoti betetimali etikhungweni te-ODeL solo awukatfutfukiswa. Kuyaphawuleka kutsi, kukhishwa kwemali kanye nebungoti bemakethe solo akukacaci kubasebenti belitiko lelibukene nekulawula bungoti betetimali, lokubeka lusongo ekuphatfweni kwetimali lokuphumelelako. Imiphumela yenchubomgomo Lolucwaningo luncoma kucala kusebenta kwetinhlelo tekulawula tangekhatsi leticinile, kucwaninga njalo kanye nekutjala imali kusakhiwonchanti setebucwepheshe lesetsembekile kute kulawulwe bungoti betetimali ngemphumelelo. Ngetulu kwaloko, kuphakamisa kukhetsa sikhulu lesitinikele sebungoti kanye nekutfutfukiswa kwemhlahlandlela lophelele wekulawula bungoti betetimali kute kwatiswe kwenta tincumo tesikhungo kanye nekutfutfukisa emasu ekubukana nebungoti.; Matsalwa yale ndzaku/Matimu Etikweni ra Afrika Dzonga tiyunivhesiti ti hlangana na makhombo yo hambana hambana eka swa timali leswi swinga ha vaka na nxungweto ekamatirhelo na vumundzuku bya tona.. Makhombo lawa yangaha suka eka mintlimbo yale ndzeni, leyi fana ka na mafambiselo, na mintlimbo yale handle,ku katsa na ku tsekatseka ka ikhonomi hambi kuri ku tumbuluxiwa ka milawu ya mafambiselo.Ku longoloxiwa hivurhonwana ka makhombo lawa naku ya lawula swinga pfuna ku endla leswaku swiyenge swa tidzondzo tale hehla swi humelala eka migingiriko ya swona. Nhlamuselo ya xiphiqo Hambi leswi ku nga na ku ndlandlamuka ka xilaveko xaku lawuka makhombo ya swatimali eka xiyenge xa tidzondzo tale henhla, kahari na ku kayivela ka ntwisiso wa ndlela leyi ti Yunivhesisi leti nyikaka vukorhokeri bya dyondzo yale kule na thekinoloji tani hi Yunivhesiti ya Afrika Dzonga ti hlanganaka na makhombo no thlela ti ringeta kuya lulamisa. Hiku kongoma , ka hari na ku kayivela mayela na tinxakanxaka ta makhombo ya swatimali lawa swiyenge leswi swi langutaneke na wona na ndlela leyi vatirhi eka swiyenge leswi va faneleke ku leteriwa hi tindlela taku lwisana na makhombo lawa. Swikongomelo Vulavisisi lebya haku endliwaka abyi ngongoma eka ku ku fikelela ku kumisisa tinxaka ta makhombo lawa ya langutana na tiyunivhesiti leti nyikaka vukorhokeri bya dyondzo yale kule na thekinoloji. Byi thlela byi xopaxopa tindlela leti tirhisiwaka eka nkarhi wa sweswi ku papalata makhombo lawa.Xo hetelela vulavisisi abyi lava ku kumisisa leswaku hi byihi vuleteri leswi vatirhi lava tirhanaka na ku lawula makhombo ya swa timali vabyi lavaka . Maendlelo ya vulavisisi Ku tirhisiwe ndzavisiso wa Yunivhesiti ya Afrika Dzonga bya maendlelo ya ku tirhisa ndzavisiso wa tinhlayonhlayo . Vuxokoxoko byi kumiwe hiku tirhisa mpfampfarhuto wa swivutiso lowu tumbuluxiweke hi mulavisisi ,lowu nga nyikiwa eka vanhu va dzana na makume mune ku suka e UNISA Vuxokoxoko lebyi kumiweke ku suka eka swivutiso abyi paluxa hi makhombo na malawulelo ya wona ku suka eka lava tekeke xiave eka vulavisisi. Mbuyelo Mbuyelo wu komba leswaku UNISA yi langutane na makhombo ya mali leyi nga kona na swona makhombo ya xibundzu la langutela yari enhansi swinene.Hi hala thlelo kuna vangwa kumbe ku kayivela ekaku leteriwa ka vatirhi eka xiyenge xa malawuleyo ya swikweleti na makhombo ya mafambiselo.s. Vatirhi va kombise kuva na nkayivelo lowu kulu wa vutivi eka xiyenge xa makhombo eka swa timali, nankayivelo wa vutivi eka swa makhomboya mabindzu, leswi swinga na nxungweto lowu kulu eka vutivi bya makhombo hiku angarhela hambi kuri ku lulamela ka vona kuya emahweni. Mahetelelo Vulavisisi lebyi byi komba leswaku kahari na nkayivelo eka xiyenge xa mafambiselo ya makhombo ya swa timali eka xiyenge xa swa tidzondzo leti nyikaka dyondzo yale kule na thekinoloji. Swahari tano,mhaka ya mafambiselo ya swikweleti na bindzu kahariki nthlonthlo eka vatirhi eka dzawulo leyi lawula mafambiselo ya makhombo ya swa timali , leswi tisaka nxungweto eka mafambiselo lama nene ya swa timali. Switandzaku swa milawu ya mafamiselo Vulavisisi byi bumabumela kuva ku tirhisiwa ndlela leyi tiyeke ya malawaulelo eka ndzwawulo,swikambelo swa nkarhi na nkarhi ,na kuva ku vuvekisiwa eka switirhisiwa swa nkoka swa xitekinoji, kuri ndlela yo ringela ku lawula makhombo ya swa timal. Nthlandla kambirhi,vulavisisi byi thlela byi bumabumela ku thoriwa ka mutirhi loyi angata langutana na makhombo ya swa timali no thlela a mpfampfarhuta no tumbuluxa tsalwa leri ngata tsundzuxa ndzawulo hi swiboho leswi ngaha tekiwaka ku antswisa mandlelo yo lwisana na makhombo lawa yanga vaka kona. Abstract in English, SiSwati and Xitsonga 2025-03-01T00:00:00Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32148 The casual relationship between growth and disaggregate public expenditure in Eswatini Dlamini, Nomalungelo Nkhosingphile Public expenditure in the Kingdom of Eswatini appears to be increasing annually; however, it does not seem to be growing at the same rate as economic growth, which is concerning for a middle-income developing economy. Thus, the main objective of the study is to investigate the relation-ship between disaggregated public expenditure (which includes capital government expenditures and recurrent government expenditures) and economic growth. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to investigate the relationship between disaggregated government expenditures and economic growth in the Kingdom of Eswatini. The study examines this relationship empiri-cally using the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) model on annual data for the period from 1980 to 2023, which tests the long-run and short-run relationships between these variables. Additionally, the study employs controls for variables such as the inflation rate, capital investment, human capital, population growth rate and a dummy variable to capture the COVID-19 pandemic. The Error Correction Model (ECM) is further employed to examine the long-run and the short-run relationships. The results of the study indicate that there is indeed a statistically significant positive relationship between recurrent government expenditures and economic growth in the long-run, while capital government expenditures and economic growth have a negative but statistically sig-nificant relationship in the short-run. After conducting the Granger Causality Tests, the study fur-ther observes that the economy of Eswatini follows Wagner’s law in that economic growth causes recurrent government expenditure and capital expenditures and the reverse is not true. The study therefore recommends that the government of Eswatini spends more on recurrent expenditures than it does on capital expenditures. 2025-08-12T00:00:00Z https://ir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/32147 Youth unemployment and crime creation in Nigeria: an exploratory study Oyesanya, Emmanuel Olalekan For ages, nations have had to deal with one form of crime or another, a phenomenon now referred to as the ‘darker side of humanity,’ which has led to an increase in the amount of literature available to guide this study. The traditional economic model of crime explains that a criminal act depends on the benefits of successfully committing a crime. Youths are people between the ages of 15 and 24, with a total of about one billion youths globally. One in five people globally falls within this age range. A staggering 90 percent of these youths are located in developing countries. This situation raises concerns about the potential implications of joblessness on youth behaviour and social stability. Unemployment may push some youths toward criminal activity as a means of survival or social expression. This study seeks to explore this possibility by investigating the relationship between youth unemployment and crime in Nigeria. Drawing from existing literature, newspapers, and secondary data from sources such as the National Bureau of Statistics, the World Bank, and official police crime records, the study examines whether rising unemployment among Nigerian youths significantly contributes to crime trends across the country. This study aims to explain the concepts of youth unemployment and crime, examine common crimes committed by youths in Nigeria, identify prevalent types of unemployment, explore the link between youth unemployment and crime, and determine the region with the highest crime rate. Using qualitative methods, charts, and tables, the study analyzes data spanning different periods to uncover patterns and potential causality. This study was driven by the persistent link between youth unemployment and crime in Nigeria. It employed relevant available data, charts and tables from trusted sources to explain and investigate the patterns and inform practical solutions. The results of this study indicate that Nigeria has a limited number of formal employment opportunities for its youths, resulting in criminal behaviour, especially offenses against property and persons, as seen by the substantial presence of youths in the criminal justice system. This unemployment crisis is a result of the high population density of young people and the limited formal job market. The study concludes by recommending integrated policy measures that prioritize youth employment 2025-11-13T00:00:00Z